Western Reserve - Female Libido Problems and Causes.
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Dr. Robert Taylor performed some experimental tests at the Western Reserve University and found that most women that suffer with female libido problems have HSDD, or hypoactive sexual desire disorder. HSDD is also known as low libido or low sex drive.
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About 33% of the women who participated in the experiment showed that they had low libido levels or female libido problems. Yet another 24% of the women had difficulty in achieving orgasms. Yet, another 14% experienced pain during intercourse. Those women who experienced pain during intercourse were the only group in the experiment that showed a relationship to age.
Apparently, the symptoms decrease as the woman grows older. According to medical experts, HSDD is an absence or deficiency of desire or sexual fantasies for sexual involvements. According to research, 37% of the women participating in the studies claimed they only thought of having sex a few times each month. Thirty-three percent of the women claimed to think of having sex two to three times per week. Studies seem to show that unhappy women think of sex less, while happy women think of sex more often.
The women who have trouble with orgasms may have developed an orgasmic disorder according to the experts. This condition causes consistent absence or delay in orgasms. During testing, the doctor found variations in the experiment, which led him to believe that the percentile of Sexual Orgasmic Disorder could not be defined.
Studies show that 29% of the participants in the survey had orgasms during sex while 40% claim that they are satisfied with their partners physically. According to the expert, there appears to be a broad spectrum of variations in sexual functions. The doctor continues to state that women should not feel as though they need to achieve their sexual peak in order to be normal.
Women who have difficulty with sex should consult with their doctors. Women with lower sex drives may experience no desire for sex due to the causes, which may include the multiple roles women assume, fatigue, and psychological causes, which all may have an impact on a female.
Some medications and health problems have been shown to cause female libido problems as well. Anxiety disorders and depression may interrupt sexual desire. The use of drugs or excessive alcohol can reduce the libido. Some birth control pills, tranquilizers, mood stabilizers, as well as other medications have been shown to decrease sex drive. Some of the antidepressants known to decrease sex drive are SSRIs, Zoloft, Paxil, and Prozac. Doctors recommend Wellbutrin SR, as it has not shown any signs of reducing or causing female libido problems.
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Hospice Of - Nurses equipment.
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On stepping into the nursing world, a whole new taste awaits an individual, depending on the type and area of practice. Just as in all other occupations, young nursing professionals too are required to be prepared with the basic nursing equipment. There might be some exact requirement of the practice or club with which the nurse is associated. However, some basic equipment remains to be the same when speaking about the nursing profession. Apart from the assorted tools that may vary from one branch to another, the basic nursing equipment remains the same and includes a compound of uniforms, shoes, watch, gait belts and bandage scissors to name a few. Other requisite equipment includes pens, stethoscopes and other relevant tools required according to the departmental demands.
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A good stethoscope is one of the most requisite equipments of a nurse. The stethoscope is a regular companion of the nurse while performing assorted examinations and determining the outpatient conditions. A approved stethoscope that can be used for adults, children, and infants would be ideal to have. The nursing scrubs (the uniform) are comprised of tops, trousers, jackets, and caps. These elements relate a professional appearance and help in distinguishing the nursing staff according to their departments and practice areas. They are also requisite for maintaining a antiseptic environment and preclude the spread of germs.
Nursing shoes are other crucial item, which need to be comfortable and durable. The nursing profession demands a lot of running around; thus, a pair of comfortable shoes is indeed indispensable. Also foremost is a easy watch that is indeed readable and has a hand measuring the seconds. It is foremost that the watch is waterproof as the nurse might wish washing hands and wrists frequently. A gait belt would also be required for transferring the patients and while providing assistance to safe ambulation.
A multicolor pen hanging from the neck would be ideal for maintaining outpatient charts and retention track of the assorted details. Nurses can also carry a curative dictionary, a nursing handbook, a pair of bandage scissors and a pocket calculator. Apart from the stethoscope, the other most ordinarily used tool of a nurse is the sphygmomanometer needed for measuring the blood pressure.
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Hospice Of - On Death and Dying - Ten Things You Need to Know About Hospice Care.
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Your family doctor and your neighbor have both suggested you call hospice for your ill loved one but you continue to be reluctant. You fear that accepting hospice is "giving up" and that your loved one will no longer receive state of the art healing care. This description will help you to sort through many of your spoken and unspoken concerns about hospice care.
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1. Isn't hospice a place where habitancy go? No, hospice is a service, not a place. Hospice brings care into your own home, be it a underground residence, an assisted living installation or a nursing home. Most habitancy want to and can stay at home but if your care becomes too involved to administrate at home, hospices also provide short term outpatient care to operate symptoms in a hospice unit, a hospital or a skilled nursing facility.
2. What does hospice provide? Hospice provides a lot of expert services. Hospices are mandated to provide both habit and after hours nursing visits. This means that the nurse will visit regularly, compare for changes and dispose for medicines and healing supplies as they are needed. She/he will put crisis medications and oxygen in your home in improve of a crisis. The nurse will spend a great deal of time answering your questions and establishment you for what comes next. Where in the past, you brought your ill loved one to the doctor's office or to the crisis room, now the services will come to you. Should you need help or direction on a Saturday or Sunday, a nurse will visit. You are no longer alone; help is just a phone call away. Other services that the hospice provides contain an aide to help with bathing, counselors to help meet emotional needs and volunteers. Some hospices provide doctor visits. Some hospices even provide music therapy, massage therapy, aroma therapy, pet therapy and art therapy.
3. When do you qualify for hospice care? Unfortunately most habitancy get hospice care too late, in the final days or weeks of life. They qualify for it as much as six months earlier. Getting hospice care earlier reduces the family's stress, avoids burnout and guarantees an improved quality of life. It keeps the outpatient well, which allows for special moments and memories to be shared. It affords both you and your loved one the opening to say "thank you" and "good bye."
4. Don't most habitancy die at home? While is true that 90% of Americans want to die at home, in actuality, very few do. Currently, 75-80% of Americans die in facilities (hospitals and nursing homes) and less than 25% of them die at home. In contrast, hospice patients practically all the time get their wish to die at home as their families are well prepared and supported to care for them at home. Hospice patients rarely die in the hospital.
5. Can hospice patients die in a hospital? Of course. If they select to die in the hospital, the outpatient will need to be discharged from the hospice, a uncomplicated matter of signing a paper.
6. Will entering a hospice make you die sooner? There is a great deal of unfounded concern about the use of medications like Morphine and the fear that its use will shorten life. There are some studies that show that Morphine eases pain but does not shorten life even in the most debilitated and ill patients. Another unfounded fear is that man will die sooner if they find out that they are terminally ill. family members sometimes insist that no one mention the word "hospice" to their loved one out of fear that their loved one will give up on life. The reality is, being ill and in failing condition is a lonely experience. Most patients know on some level how ill they are. Many want to talk about it and put plans in place. Sometimes they don't bring it up because they see how painful it is for you and they are trying to safe you. This conspiracy of silence robs both parties of opportunities. Many patients want to ask questions about what will happen to them. They look for reassurance that their symptoms will be controlled and that they will remain in operate and comfortable. You also may want to ask them questions. Questions about their funeral and how they want issues handled after their death.
7. Do patients admitted to hospice ever improve? Yes, some patients admitted to hospice admittedly heighten and in time, they are discharged from hospice. This makes sense that when you heighten someone's pain and ease their loneliness, they will eat and sleep best and procure some health.
8. Will hospice make me give up treatments that are currently benefiting me? You don't have to give up treatments or medications that are benefiting you. The hospice focus is on quality of life. Medications that promote quality of life are regularly covered by the hospice. If you find a new medicine that may prolong your life (but not heighten your quality of life), you can sign off the hospice advantage and return at a later date.
9. Is hospice care expensive? Hospice care is covered by most insurance. Medicare and most Medicaid insurances cover hospice care at 100%. Many underground insurances have modeled themselves after these federal and state programs and also cover hospice care at 100%.
10. Hospice care is a critical aid that many habitancy never receive.
Sometimes it is never offered and other times, the outpatient or family is reluctant to accept hospice care. Most families who did receive hospice care say that they could have benefited from hospice much earlier. Ask you doctor about hospice care. If your doctor is not sure that you qualify, most hospices will send a nurse to the home to value your appropriateness for hospice. Don't allow your fear to preclude you from getting the help that you need.
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University Hospitals - Best Hospitals in Singapore.
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No matter where you go in Asia, Singapore is renowned for having some of the best medical care in the world. If you happen to get sick or become injured while you are in Singapore you can be sure that you will receive top-notch care.
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Basically, you ca not go wrong in any of the hospitals in Singapore. This country boasts one of the world's longest longevity rates as well as one of the lowest infant mortality rates. There are both government and private hospitals. All are of good quality, but the government hospitals are less expensive. The downside is you are more likely to have to wait for treatment. Although the private hospitals are more expensive, you will be treated quickly and efficiently.
I would like to give a brief overview of some of the better hospitals in Singapore.
National University Hospital is one of the most famous and largest hospitals in Singapore. It is connected with the University of Singapore and ranked among the top six in the world in 2000 by WHO. Its current strengths are in the fields of cardiology, cardiothoracic and vascular surgery. You will find NUH on 5 Lower Kent Ridge Road. NUH has a whole department, the International Patient Liaison Centre which caters to foreigners seeking treatment at their hospital. Their 24-hour help line is (65)6779 2777.
Changi General Hospital serves the eastern part of Singapore. In June 2005, this hospital received Joint Commission International accreditation. At CGH, you will find an International Medical Services team that is trained to assist you in getting the treatment you need.
Mount Alvernia is another good choice, founded in 1961 by an order of Franciscan nuns. Today the hospital is still not-for-profit. This hospital specializes in mother and child care. Mount Alvernia has a 24-hour walk-in clinic and emergency room. If finances are an issue this might be the hospital for you to consider.
Tan Tock Seng Hospital was founded in 1844 through the philanthropy of Mr. Tan Tock Seng. It is the second largest hospital in Singapore. Due to its central location its accident and emergency room is the busiest in the country. It is also accredited by the Joint Commission International for keeping up with high medical standards. It is also a member of the National Healthcare Group. It may not be terribly user friendly for the foreigner.
Singapore General Hospital is the oldest (founded in 1821) and largest hospital in Singapore, located on the grounds of the Outram Park. This hospital is a government run hospital which means the costs are kept low. This does not mean that quality suffers; the nursing staff recently received the distinctive Magnet Recognition from the American Nurses Credentialing Center.
Thomson Medical is best known for its high quality maternity care. They also have a department devoted to caring for the International patient. In addition, they have a Korean Service department dedicated to the needs of the Korean expatriate community.
Gleneagles Hospital is one of several excellent private hospitals managed by Parkway Health in Singapore and other parts of Asia. Gleneagles focuses on providing user-friendly services, along with quality care, specialists' expertise and modern technology; it is conveniently located near the Botanic Gardens and not far from the US embassy. Another Parkway Health hospital is Mount Elizabeth Hospital which specializes in cardiac surgery and neurosurgery.
You may want to consider Raffles Hospital another private hospital which especially caters the Japanese community. You can expect five star treatment and accommodations as well as a five-star price. This hospital gained notoriety for its landmark surgery in separating Siamese twins. Raffles makes available traditional Chinese medicine for those seeking that type of treatment.
I hope you do not have to use this information, but you never know when knowing where to find a good hospital will come in handy.
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University Hospitals - Causes Of Software Project Failure.
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Most software projects fail completely or partial failures because a small number of projects meet all their requirements. These requirements can be the cost, schedule, quality, or requirements objectives. According to many studies, failure rate of software projects is between 50% - 80%. This essay is a compilation of failure causes of software development projects; this essay summarises several areas that play a vital role in software project failure.
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So, what really is the reason for software project failure? The sad fact is that software projects fail because we do not recognize that good engineering principles should be applied to software projects just as they are to building office buildings. We try to defend ourselves by saying that software construction is "different".
One of the most serious complaints against software failure is the inability
to estimate with acceptable accuracy the cost, resources, and schedule necessary
for a software project. Conventional assessment methods have always produced
positive results which contribute to the too well-known cost infested and
schedule slippage.
Over the last 20 years many cost and schedule estimation techniques have been
used with mixed sensation due to restrictions of the assessment models. A major
part of the estimations failure can be due to a lack of understanding of the
software development process and the effect of that method used in the project
plan, schedule and cost estimates.
Failure Case Studies
Below are few of the case studies considered which will be analysed to fetch
the main reasons of failure of the software system.
Northumbria University developed accounting software to manage its day to day
business. The project could not come up with the desired results and failed to
meet the deadlines. Te investigations showed that the basic project management
procedures were not followed. This case study is referenced in this essay at
different points where necessary. [1]
Thai subsidiary (SMTL) of a Hong Kong-based multinational company (SMHK)
engaged in the manufacturing of electronic equipment. They implemented an
integrated software package; which was a failure at the several factors. These
factors were mostly management related. Such as a poor fit between the business
process assumptions inscribed in the software and the business processes in SMTL,
poor leadership at different levels, cultural differences, organizational
environment, and poor human resource management.
St John's Hospital is a District General Hospital provides medical and
nursing services, which includes both general surgery and medicine.All these
services are supported by diagnostic imaging, laboratory, ambulance, pharmacy
and therapy services, which are all on site. As the major hospital in a tourist
area, it deals with many visitors in the holiday season, generating a large
amount of non-booked admissions work.
Software Management & Leadership
It has been shown repeatedly, that effective leadership is essential for successful IT implementation (Klenke, 1994). A leader must also have cultural sensitivity, communication skills, creativity, ability to delegate, and the ability to develop and retain human resources (Luthans, 1994). The software manager at (SMHK) was a western, where as the lower managers were Eastern. So there was a cultural clash going on always. Jack (Manager) always try to introduce creative thoughts. And most of the time the lower management could not do them. Hence there was a clash going on all the time.
Employees also felt that management hardly ever "listened" to their concerns
or attempted to address them. Consequently, many employees were eager to leave
the company, and did so as soon as they found alternate opportunities in other
companies.
Project Planning & Scheduling
Project planning means creating work breakdown, and then allocate responsibilities to the developers over time. Project planning consists of construction of various tasks, timelines and essential pathways including Gantt charts and PERT charts and different written plans for various situations.
It is quite usual in software development process to work backward from the
project end date which results in complete software project failure. It is
impossible that a project can be completed efficiently from the planning stage
to the implementation stage.
Allocation of roles and responsibilities has to be clearly defined, and it
becomes crucial while hiring the stall from outside. University's higher
management failed to apply the basic project management rules which laid to the
project failure.
Proper scheduling is also required before the start of the project. It
includes the time scheduling, teams scheduling. Project managers don't know what
they have to plan and schedule. They just only tell the programmer what to do
and the programmers can come up with a proper solution.
The development was moved to a new office and the office was not fully
equipped with the proper infrastructure. As time is also a big factor in success
or failure of a project. So it delayed the development process and contributed
towards the project failure. Infrastructure was not fully scheduled and
management team didn't know where and how the project development will be
started.
The top secret of a winning software development project is to control the
quality up and lower the risk. Contingency plan is also the part of planning. In
case things went wrong then this plan can be followed to lower the affect of the
failure of project. Same was the case with university's accounting software. The
management team had no such a contingency plan nor did they evaluate the risk
involved in the development of the new system. So it caused more trouble without
the backup system or backup plan.
The management just try to follow the methodologies like SDLC or RAD, but don't know which methodology to use and at which time should apply the right technique.
Cost Estimation
Cost estimation is mainly involved the cost of effort to produce the software project. But it's not limited to the effort only. It also includes the hardware and software cost, training the employees and customer, travelling to the customer, networking and communication costs. Cost estimation should be done as a part of the software process model.
Cost estimation needs to be done well before the start of the project
development. Failure of the budgeting for the cost of the project results in
complete disaster. As stated above the infrastructure cost, development tools
cost and hardware cost also needs to be estimated first.
Same thing happened to university's accounting system development. They
purchased the new system well with out any serious estimation of the cost and
the income sources.
Below are the reasons why wrong cost estimation is done.
Inappropriate estimation methodology
Another reason would be the use of an inappropriate cost estimation methodology. Not a single methodology is better than other. Every methodology has its own strong and weak points which should be considered. Dr. Barry Boehm's book Software Engineering Economics lists seven estimation methodologies. One or more of these methodologies can be used to estimate the cost of a project
"Good suggestion is that more than one software cost estimation methodology
should be used for accurate estimation".
Cost estimation tools
There are many drawbacks in manual cost estimation. This technique is almost obsolete now. These days successful cost estimation includes the use of appropriate commercial software cost estimating tool.
Good software estimating tools do not always guarantee reliable software
estimates. Wrong input of the software size will result in wrong estimate.
Estimation software also needs to be customised for the specific need of
organization. These customisations require the data from the past projects as
input for the tool to estimate.
There are number of reasons these tools can return the wrong estimate.
Choosing the right estimation tool
Choice of a right estimation tool is necessary for the right estimation. The tool is not capable of handling the input and thus it can come up with the wrong estimate and hence cause the software project to fail.
Ease of customisation
As mentioned above the selected tool must be customisable according to the organisation needs, so that the organization can customise it according to the needs and past project data.
Easy to use and learn
The cost estimation tool should be easy to use and learn. It must include help and examples, simple and straight forward user interface. It must require less training to learn the system and inputs should be well defined.
Accurate Estimation
The estimation tool must have the capability to analyse all the parameters and come up with the accurate estimation for the cost.
Risk Management
Risk management is an important factor towards software project failure if it's not managed timely and effectively. As nothing can be predicted that what will happen in future so we have to take the necessary steps in the present to take any uncertain situation in the future. Risk management means dealing with a concern before it becomes a crisis.
Risk Identification
According to the Universal risk Project there are two types of conditions which can be a symbol of as risk.
IF-THEN Statements
"IF technology is not available, THEN we will not meet the requirement"
"IF we cannot hire sufficient qualified software engineers, THEN we cannot meet the planned development schedule
Given the "condition", there is a likelihood that the "consequence" will occur
"Given that this specific test fails (the CONDITION), the CONSEQUENCE is that the planned schedule will slip"
Project managers have to identify the areas where the risk can be and how it
can affect the development of the project. Risk can be of technical nature or
non technical. Project managers needs to be aware of both the risks. Most of the
projects managers are not good in either of the side. A good manager with
programming skills can be good in identifying the technical risk but not in non
technical risk.
Risk Analysis
After the risk is identified there is a need to make the categories of that risk. Risk analysis is the process of examining the project results and deliverables after the risk analysis and applying the technique to lower the risk. After risk analysis is complete, the proper risk analysis plan needs to be made to cope with any uncertain situation. First identified risks are categorized and make the hierarchy of those risks. At this point the risk is classified as the positive or negative risks.
Risk Prioritization
After the risk is analyzed, the next step is to priorities the risk. At first focus on the most sever risk first; and les sever later. These risk factors can worked from time to time so that the final project out come is free of risk. So most of the time project management team fails to identify the sever risk and work on the less sever risk. This often results in the form of a crisis.
Risk Avoidance
Dealing with the risk is an art. Some times the management takes the projects with out identifying the proper risk involved in the project. So an experienced manager will take the project after proper risk analysis and avoid any risk involved in the project.
Risk control
Managing the risk to achieve the desired results and deliverables is done through controlling the risk at its best. This is a pure intuitive process and depends on the experience of the project management team, or risk already managed in past projects which were done by the same organization.
Conclusion
This essay has presented three basic factors which can cause the software development project to fail. Planning & Scheduling, cost estimation and risk management. All of these factors are to be considered at the management level and then transferred to the lower management.
Planning & Scheduling comes at first, good planning and scheduling makes the
strong foundation for the software project. Project planning consists of
construction of various tasks, timelines and essential pathways including Gantt
charts and PERT charts and different written plans for various situations. If
these factors are not taken into part then the software may encounter problems
during the development and the final product will be a failure.
Cost estimation depends on the budget of the project, customer type and the
size and effort to be put in the project. Cost estimations are done many times
during the life cycle of a project. It affects the project in many ways, wrong
estimation complete failure, affect the good-will of the organisation if the
costs are not covered, stake holders are affected and waste of resources.
Managing the risk is a practical approach for decreasing the ambiguity and
possible loss related with a software development project. Potential measures
can be considered as opportunity-focused (positive risk) if their consequences
are favourable, or as threat-focused (negative risk) if their consequences are
unfavourable.
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University Hospitals - Causes Of Software Project Failure
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Do you know about - Causes Of Software Project Failure
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Most software projects fail completely or partial failures because a small number of projects meet all their requirements. These requirements can be the cost, schedule, quality, or requirements objectives. According to many studies, failure rate of software projects is between 50% - 80%. This essay is a compilation of failure causes of software development projects; this essay summarises several areas that play a vital role in software project failure.
What I said. It is not the final outcome that the true about University Hospitals. You check out this article for facts about a person need to know is University Hospitals.
How is Causes Of Software Project Failure
We had a good read. For the benefit of yourself. Be sure to read to the end. I want you to get good knowledge from University Hospitals.
So, what really is the reason for software project failure? The sad fact is that software projects fail because we do not recognize that good engineering principles should be applied to software projects just as they are to building office buildings. We try to defend ourselves by saying that software construction is "different".
One of the most serious complaints against software failure is the inability
to estimate with acceptable accuracy the cost, resources, and schedule necessary
for a software project. Conventional assessment methods have always produced
positive results which contribute to the too well-known cost infested and
schedule slippage.
Over the last 20 years many cost and schedule estimation techniques have been
used with mixed sensation due to restrictions of the assessment models. A major
part of the estimations failure can be due to a lack of understanding of the
software development process and the effect of that method used in the project
plan, schedule and cost estimates.
Failure Case Studies
Below are few of the case studies considered which will be analysed to fetch
the main reasons of failure of the software system.
Northumbria University developed accounting software to manage its day to day
business. The project could not come up with the desired results and failed to
meet the deadlines. Te investigations showed that the basic project management
procedures were not followed. This case study is referenced in this essay at
different points where necessary. [1]
Thai subsidiary (SMTL) of a Hong Kong-based multinational company (SMHK)
engaged in the manufacturing of electronic equipment. They implemented an
integrated software package; which was a failure at the several factors. These
factors were mostly management related. Such as a poor fit between the business
process assumptions inscribed in the software and the business processes in SMTL,
poor leadership at different levels, cultural differences, organizational
environment, and poor human resource management.
St John's Hospital is a District General Hospital provides medical and
nursing services, which includes both general surgery and medicine.All these
services are supported by diagnostic imaging, laboratory, ambulance, pharmacy
and therapy services, which are all on site. As the major hospital in a tourist
area, it deals with many visitors in the holiday season, generating a large
amount of non-booked admissions work.
Software Management & Leadership
It has been shown repeatedly, that effective leadership is essential for successful IT implementation (Klenke, 1994). A leader must also have cultural sensitivity, communication skills, creativity, ability to delegate, and the ability to develop and retain human resources (Luthans, 1994). The software manager at (SMHK) was a western, where as the lower managers were Eastern. So there was a cultural clash going on always. Jack (Manager) always try to introduce creative thoughts. And most of the time the lower management could not do them. Hence there was a clash going on all the time.
Employees also felt that management hardly ever "listened" to their concerns
or attempted to address them. Consequently, many employees were eager to leave
the company, and did so as soon as they found alternate opportunities in other
companies.
Project Planning & Scheduling
Project planning means creating work breakdown, and then allocate responsibilities to the developers over time. Project planning consists of construction of various tasks, timelines and essential pathways including Gantt charts and PERT charts and different written plans for various situations.
It is quite usual in software development process to work backward from the
project end date which results in complete software project failure. It is
impossible that a project can be completed efficiently from the planning stage
to the implementation stage.
Allocation of roles and responsibilities has to be clearly defined, and it
becomes crucial while hiring the stall from outside. University's higher
management failed to apply the basic project management rules which laid to the
project failure.
Proper scheduling is also required before the start of the project. It
includes the time scheduling, teams scheduling. Project managers don't know what
they have to plan and schedule. They just only tell the programmer what to do
and the programmers can come up with a proper solution.
The development was moved to a new office and the office was not fully
equipped with the proper infrastructure. As time is also a big factor in success
or failure of a project. So it delayed the development process and contributed
towards the project failure. Infrastructure was not fully scheduled and
management team didn't know where and how the project development will be
started.
The top secret of a winning software development project is to control the
quality up and lower the risk. Contingency plan is also the part of planning. In
case things went wrong then this plan can be followed to lower the affect of the
failure of project. Same was the case with university's accounting software. The
management team had no such a contingency plan nor did they evaluate the risk
involved in the development of the new system. So it caused more trouble without
the backup system or backup plan.
The management just try to follow the methodologies like SDLC or RAD, but don't know which methodology to use and at which time should apply the right technique.
Cost Estimation
Cost estimation is mainly involved the cost of effort to produce the software project. But it's not limited to the effort only. It also includes the hardware and software cost, training the employees and customer, travelling to the customer, networking and communication costs. Cost estimation should be done as a part of the software process model.
Cost estimation needs to be done well before the start of the project
development. Failure of the budgeting for the cost of the project results in
complete disaster. As stated above the infrastructure cost, development tools
cost and hardware cost also needs to be estimated first.
Same thing happened to university's accounting system development. They
purchased the new system well with out any serious estimation of the cost and
the income sources.
Below are the reasons why wrong cost estimation is done.
Inappropriate estimation methodology
Another reason would be the use of an inappropriate cost estimation methodology. Not a single methodology is better than other. Every methodology has its own strong and weak points which should be considered. Dr. Barry Boehm's book Software Engineering Economics lists seven estimation methodologies. One or more of these methodologies can be used to estimate the cost of a project
"Good suggestion is that more than one software cost estimation methodology
should be used for accurate estimation".
Cost estimation tools
There are many drawbacks in manual cost estimation. This technique is almost obsolete now. These days successful cost estimation includes the use of appropriate commercial software cost estimating tool.
Good software estimating tools do not always guarantee reliable software
estimates. Wrong input of the software size will result in wrong estimate.
Estimation software also needs to be customised for the specific need of
organization. These customisations require the data from the past projects as
input for the tool to estimate.
There are number of reasons these tools can return the wrong estimate.
Choosing the right estimation tool
Choice of a right estimation tool is necessary for the right estimation. The tool is not capable of handling the input and thus it can come up with the wrong estimate and hence cause the software project to fail.
Ease of customisation
As mentioned above the selected tool must be customisable according to the organisation needs, so that the organization can customise it according to the needs and past project data.
Easy to use and learn
The cost estimation tool should be easy to use and learn. It must include help and examples, simple and straight forward user interface. It must require less training to learn the system and inputs should be well defined.
Accurate Estimation
The estimation tool must have the capability to analyse all the parameters and come up with the accurate estimation for the cost.
Risk Management
Risk management is an important factor towards software project failure if it's not managed timely and effectively. As nothing can be predicted that what will happen in future so we have to take the necessary steps in the present to take any uncertain situation in the future. Risk management means dealing with a concern before it becomes a crisis.
Risk Identification
According to the Universal risk Project there are two types of conditions which can be a symbol of as risk.
IF-THEN Statements
"IF technology is not available, THEN we will not meet the requirement"
"IF we cannot hire sufficient qualified software engineers, THEN we cannot meet the planned development schedule
Given the "condition", there is a likelihood that the "consequence" will occur
"Given that this specific test fails (the CONDITION), the CONSEQUENCE is that the planned schedule will slip"
Project managers have to identify the areas where the risk can be and how it
can affect the development of the project. Risk can be of technical nature or
non technical. Project managers needs to be aware of both the risks. Most of the
projects managers are not good in either of the side. A good manager with
programming skills can be good in identifying the technical risk but not in non
technical risk.
Risk Analysis
After the risk is identified there is a need to make the categories of that risk. Risk analysis is the process of examining the project results and deliverables after the risk analysis and applying the technique to lower the risk. After risk analysis is complete, the proper risk analysis plan needs to be made to cope with any uncertain situation. First identified risks are categorized and make the hierarchy of those risks. At this point the risk is classified as the positive or negative risks.
Risk Prioritization
After the risk is analyzed, the next step is to priorities the risk. At first focus on the most sever risk first; and les sever later. These risk factors can worked from time to time so that the final project out come is free of risk. So most of the time project management team fails to identify the sever risk and work on the less sever risk. This often results in the form of a crisis.
Risk Avoidance
Dealing with the risk is an art. Some times the management takes the projects with out identifying the proper risk involved in the project. So an experienced manager will take the project after proper risk analysis and avoid any risk involved in the project.
Risk control
Managing the risk to achieve the desired results and deliverables is done through controlling the risk at its best. This is a pure intuitive process and depends on the experience of the project management team, or risk already managed in past projects which were done by the same organization.
Conclusion
This essay has presented three basic factors which can cause the software development project to fail. Planning & Scheduling, cost estimation and risk management. All of these factors are to be considered at the management level and then transferred to the lower management.
Planning & Scheduling comes at first, good planning and scheduling makes the
strong foundation for the software project. Project planning consists of
construction of various tasks, timelines and essential pathways including Gantt
charts and PERT charts and different written plans for various situations. If
these factors are not taken into part then the software may encounter problems
during the development and the final product will be a failure.
Cost estimation depends on the budget of the project, customer type and the
size and effort to be put in the project. Cost estimations are done many times
during the life cycle of a project. It affects the project in many ways, wrong
estimation complete failure, affect the good-will of the organisation if the
costs are not covered, stake holders are affected and waste of resources.
Managing the risk is a practical approach for decreasing the ambiguity and
possible loss related with a software development project. Potential measures
can be considered as opportunity-focused (positive risk) if their consequences
are favourable, or as threat-focused (negative risk) if their consequences are
unfavourable.
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A current account deficit on the Balance of Payments means that the value of imports for goods and services is greater than the value of exports. The US currently has a very large current account deficit, roughly between 6-7% of GDP. This deficit threatens to cause a significant devaluation in the US dollar. This essay looks at the causes of a balance of payments deficit.
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Fixed Exchange Rate
If the currency is overvalued, imports will be cheaper and therefore there will be a higher Q of imports. Exports will become uncompetitive and therefore there will be a fall in the Quantity of exports.
Economic Growth
If there is an increase in AD and National Income increases, people will have more disposable income to consume goods. If domestic producers can not meet the domestic AD, consumers will have to imports goods from abroad. In the UK we have a high Marginal propensity to imports mpm because we do not have a comparative advantage in the production of manufactured goods. Therefore if there is fast economic growth there tends to be a big increase in imports.
Decline in Competitiveness.
IN the UK there has been a decline in the exporting manufacturing sector, because it has struggled to compete with developing countries in the far east. This has led to a persistent deficit in the balance of trade.
Higher inflation
This makes exports less competitive and imports more competitive. However this factor may be offset by a decline in the value of sterling.
Recession in other countries.
If the UK's main trading partners experience negative economic growth then they will buy less of our exports, worsening the current account.
Borrowing money
If countries are borrowing money to invest e.g third world countries
In the US the main reason for a current account deficit is the high marginal propensity to consume of American consumers. This has been encouraged by relatively low interest rates, cuts in income tax for the wealthy and rising house prices. The recent fall in US house prices and therefore consumer spending may result in a lower deficit.
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